; of a person or a man’s name.
	; of buildings.
	; of inhabited places.
	; of foreign countries.
	; club; of foreigners.
	; of all actions of the mouth—eating and speaking, likewise silence and hunger.
	; ripple-lines; of liquid.
	; hide; of animals, also leather, &c.
	; of plants and fibres.
	; of flesh.
	; a sealed papyrus-roll; of books, teaching, law, and of abstract ideas generally.

In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted to

the

,

, &c.,

after proper names, but it developed immensely later, so that few words beyond the particles were written without them in the normal style after the Old Kingdom.

Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms which point out the special meaning. In such cases the ideogram is not merely a determinative nor yet quite a word-sign. Thus

=

“Semite,”

=

“Libyan,” &c.,

but

cannot stand by itself for the name of any particular foreign people. So also in monogram

is šm “go,”

is “conduct.”

Orthography.—The most primitive form of spelling in the hieroglyphic system would be by one sign for each word, and the monuments of the Ist Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode. Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches, for here the monumental style demanded special consciseness. Thus, for instance, the name of Tethmosis III.—MN-ḪPR-Rꜥ—is spelled

(as Rꜥ is the name of the sun-god, with customary deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last). A number of common words—prepositions, &c.—with only one consonant are spelled by single alphabetic signs in ordinary writing. Word-signs used singly for the names of objects are generally marked with

in classical writing, as—

, ỉb, “heart,”

, ḥr, “face,” &c.

But the use of bare word-signs is not common. Flexional consonants are almost always marked by phonograms, except in very early times; as when the feminine word

= z.t, “cobra,” is spelled

.

Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phonogram would be added to indicate which of its values was intended: thus

in

is św, “he,”

but in

it is śtn, “king.”

Further, owing to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent confusion of one with another in rapid writing they were generally provided with “phonetic complements,” a group being less easily misread than a single letter. E.g.

, wz, “command,” is regularly written

, wz (w);

but

, ḥz, “white,” is written

, ḥz(z).

This practice had the advantage also of distinguishing determinatives from phonograms. Thus the root or syllable ḥn is regularly written

to avoid confusion with the determinative

.

Redundance in writing is the rule; for instance,

b is often spelled

(b)b’(’).

Biliteral phonograms are very rare as phonetic complements, nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in writing the radicals of a word.

Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters is not uncommon, the determinative being generally added. Thus in the pyramidal texts we find

ḫpr, “become,” written

in one copy of a text, in another

.

Such variant spellings are very important for fixing the readings of word-signs. It is noteworthy that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters, especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever made towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral phonograms, which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well have been rendered quite superfluous.

Abbreviations.—We find

,

strictly ꜥnḫ z’ ś standing for the ceremonial viva! ꜥnḫ wz’ śnb. “Life, Prosperity and Health,” and in course of time

was used in accounts instead of

dmz, “total.”

Monograms are frequent and are found from the earliest times. Thus

,

mentioned above are monograms, the association of

and

having no pictorial meaning. Another common monogram is

, i.e.

and

for Ḥ·t-Ḥrw “Hathor.”

A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic complement, as

ḥz “white,”

or with its determinative, as

ḥz “silver.”

The table on the opposite page shows the uses of a few of the commoner signs.

The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in Egypt. The aim of the artist-scribe was to arrange his variously shaped characters into square groups, and this could be done in great measure by taking advantage of the different ways in which many words could be spelt. Thus ḥs could be written

, ḥsy

, ḥs-f

, ḥs-n-f

.

But some words in the classical writing were intractable from this point of view. It is obvious that the alphabetic signs played a very important part in the formation of the groups, and many words could only be written in alphabetic signs. A great advance was therefore made when several homophones were introduced into the alphabet in the Middle and New Kingdoms, partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic distinctions, giving the choice between

and

,

and

,

and

,

and

,

and

.

In later times the number of homophones in use increased greatly throughout the different classes, the tendency being much helped by the habit of fanciful writing; but few of these homophones found their way into the cursive script. Occasionally a scribe of the old times indulged his fancy in “sportive” or “mysterious” writing, either inventing new signs or employing old ones in unusual meanings. Short sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of the XIIth Dynasty; some groups are so written cursively in early medical papyri, and certain religious inscriptions in the royal tombs of the XIXth and XXth Dynasties are in secret writing. Fanciful writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

Hieroglyphic.—The main division is into monumental or epigraphic hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs. The former may be rendered by the sculptor or the painter in stone, on wood, &c., with great delicacy of detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline. When finely rendered they are of great value to the student investigating the origins of their values. No other system of writing bears upon its face so clearly the history of its development as the Egyptian; yet even in this a vast amount of work is still required to detect and disentangle the details. Monumental hieroglyphic did not cease till the 3rd century A.D. (Temple of Esna). The written hieroglyphs, formed by the scribe with the reed pen on papyrus, leather, wooden tablets, &c., have their outlines more or less abbreviated, producing eventually the cursive scripts hieratic and demotic. The written hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially for religious texts.

Hieratic.—A kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is found even in the Ist Dynasty. In the Middle Kingdom it is well