water was raised by the pressure of the atmosphere. Those plans

had the disadvantage of being very wasteful of heat, through the condensation of a large portion of the steam on coming into contact with the water. Papin had invented the cylinder and piston; but in his invention the cylinder itself was to have served alternately as boiler and condenser, in consequence of which it was practically useless. Newcomen and Cawley were the first who combined the cylinder and piston with a separate boiler. They used the steam at a pressure very little, if at all, exceeding that of the atmosphere; it entered the cylinder below the piston, and so balanced the pressure of the atmosphere on the top of the piston, which was raised to the top of the cylinder by the descent of the pump rods and plungers that hung from the other end of the walking beam. The steam-admission valve was then shut, and the steam in the cylinder was condensed by the admission of a current of cold water into a casing surrounding the cylinder. The pressure below the piston was thus made less than the pressure of the atmosphere, which consequently forced the piston down and raised the other end of the beam, together with its pump rods and plungers. This engine, known at the time as the "fire-engine," but now called the "atmospheric steam-engine," soon became extensively used for pumping water from mines. Its inventors afterwards made its action more rapid by injecting the condensing water into the interior of the cylinder. It underwent, from time to time, various improvements in detail, contrived by Potter, Beighton, and others, and was brought to the most perfect condition of which it was capable by Smeaton; but it possessed the radical defect of introducing the steam at each stroke into a cylinder previously cooled by contact with cold water and cold air; and it was superseded when that defect was overcome through the invention of Watt.—W. J. M. R. NEWDIGATE, Sir Roger, the founder of a prize for Engglish verses in the university of Oxford, was born in 1719, and in 1734 succeeded his brother in the baronetcy and ancient family estates at Abury and Harefield. He was educated at Westminster school and University college, Oxford, made the tour of France and Italy, and on his return entered parliament as member for Middlesex. In 1750 he was elected to represent the university of Oxford, which he continued to do until 1780, when he retired from public life after a parliamentary career of thirty-five years. He died in 1806.—R. H. NEWMAN, Francis W., younger brother of John Henry Newman, was born in London in 1805. Like his brother he was educated at Ealing and at Oxford, where in 1826 he was in the first class both of classics and of mathematics, and was admitted a fellow of Balliol. One of his earliest wishes, according to his own account, was to become a minister of the Church of England, and a missionary to the heathen. In his "Phases of Faith," Mr. Newman has described the process by which—while the ministry of the Church of England became impossible for him, and he even felt himself obliged to resign his fellowship rather than renew his subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles—he could still conscientiously and cheerfully devote himself to missionary labour. In September, 1830, he proceeded to the East to join at Bagdad Mr. Groves, who had given up everything to become a missionary to the Mahometans. Of his secular experiences during his three years' residence in the East, chiefly at Aleppo and Bagdad, Mr. Newman published, during the war with Russia, an account entitled "Personal Narrative, in Letters, principally from Turkey, in the years 1830-33." In 1834 he became classical tutor at Bristol college, and in 1840 a classical professor at the Manchester New college. In 1846 he was appointed to the chair which he now fills, that of Latin in the University college, London. Mr. Newman's literary labours have been wide in their range, from an exposition of the difficulties of elementary geometry and the compilation of a volume of poetical extracts for the practice of elocution, to the "History of the Hebrew Monarchy" and a metrical translation of Homer's Iliad. To the political public he is known as a keen asserter of the rights of Hungary, having edited the Select Speeches of Kossuth, and published a work on the "Crimes of the House of Hapsburg against its own liege subjects." But he is most widely known as the author of the "Soul, its Sorrows, and Aspirations," 1849, and of "Phases of Faith, or passages from the history of my creed"—the latter a spiritual autobiography, in which he traces his gradual departure from, and final abandonment of orthodoxy. In his version of the Odes of Horace, 1853, and the Iliad of Homer, 1856, he has embodied a new theory of translation, which in "Homeric Translation, in theory and practice," 1861, he has defended against the attacks of Professor Arnold of Oxford. One of Professor Newman's earliest literary appearances was in 1843, as the editor of an abridged translation of the German Huber's curious and, on the whole, useful account of the English universities.—F. E. * NEWMAN, John Henry, D.D., was born in 1801 in London, where his father was a partner in a banking-house. Educated at Ealing, he proceeded in 1816 to Trinity college, Oxford, and in 1822 was elected one of the fellows of Oriel, who included in their body the present archbishop of Dublin. Through Dr. Whately, Newman became connected with the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, to which he contributed among other articles the history of Roman literature. Ordained in 1824, he was in the following year appointed vice-principal of St. Alban's hall as soon as Dr. Whately had become its principal. For some time Newman remained a member of the evangelical party, to which his friend and senior Dr. Whately was then also attached. He resigned his vice-principalship in 1826 on becoming a tutor of his college, a position which he retained until 1831, having meanwhile, in 1828, been appointed vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford, and of the village of Littlemore in its neighbourhood. By 1833 Mr. Newman's earlier theological views had been completely transformed, and he was one of the knot of Oxford men who in that year formed an agreement for united exertions, and established a society to promote the objects of which the famous Tracts for the Times were issued. Their publication began early in 1833, and all along Mr. Newman was a leading contributor to them. In the same year he published his first book, the tendencies of which were obvious, "The Arians of the Fourth Century, their doctrines, temper, and conduct, chiefly as exhibited in the councils of the church between a.d. 351 and a.d. 381;" in 1837 appeared his "Parochial Sermons;" and in 1838 his "Lectures on Justification." The issue of the Tracts for the Times continued until 1841, when appeared the celebrated No. 90, endeavouring to show that the Articles of the Church of England might be accepted in a Romish sense. The authorship of the tract was avowed by Mr. Newman, and after its appearance, and the storm which it aroused, the issue of the series was discontinued. His "Essay on the Miracles Recorded in the Ecclesiastical History of the Early Ages," 1843; his "Lives of the English Saints," which began to appear in 1844; and above all, his "Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine"—had made it clear what goal their author was nearing, when in the autumn of 1845 he was formally received into the Romish church. From 1848 until 1852 he was head of the oratory of St. Phillip Neri at Birmingham. On the 22d June, 1852, he was tried in the court of queen's bench before the late Lord Campbell and a special jury for a libel on Dr. Achilli, a protestant convert from the Romish church, whom he had attacked in public lectures. Mr. Newman's libel was published in his "Lectures on the present position of Catholics in England," and he attempted to justify it in detail; but the jury gave a verdict against him, and he was fined £100. which, with the costs, were paid by a subscription raised among the members of his communion. In 1852 he was appointed rector of the new Roman catholic university at Dublin. The chief of Dr. Newman's numerous earlier writings have been already mentioned. In 1854 appeared his "Lectures on the History of the Turks;" and in 1859 his "Lectures and Essays on University Subjects."—F. E. NEWPORT, George, a distinguished physiologist and entomologist, was born at Canterbury on July 4th, 1803. His father was a wheelwright. He gave his son an ordinary English education, and apprenticed him at the age of fourteen to his own business. Newport never liked the trade; but his father falling into pecuniary difficulties, he was obliged, after the expiration of his apprenticeship, to continue it. By working hard three or four days in the week, he contrived to give a portion of his time to the more congenial pursuits of literature, science, the study of antiquities, and especially of entomology. The Canterbury Philosophical and Literary Institution, of which he became a member in 1825, afforded him the means of study. In the first year of his membership he lectured at the Institution on mechanics, and in the following year he was appointed exhibiter of the museum, with a small salary. Before long he became acquainted with Mr. Weekes, a surgeon of Sandwich, who offered to take him as a pupil without premium, but with