crime which their worst passions could inspire. By order of

Louis XIV. the unhappy palatinate was again in 1689 laid waste in still more cruel fashion. The last victory of Turenne over the imperialists was gained at Türkheim on the 5th of January, 1675; thereupon he visited Paris, and begged the king to allow him to retire to private life; but the king would not consent. In the campaign which now opened on the Upper Rhine, Turenne had for adversary Montecucoli, the best general of the imperialists, and perhaps at the time the best in the world. The combatants watched each other warily for months without coming to blows. Turenne having seized what he deemed a favourable hour for a battle, crossed the Rhine. While reconnoitring the ground for the erection of a battery he was, 27th of July, 1675, ki led by a cannon-ball. When the news reached Montecucoli he said, "A man has now been slain who did honour to the human race." Turenne's death was a profound grief and an irreparable loss to France. To please Louis XIV. Turenne in 1668 agreed to profess the Roman catholic faith.—W. M—l. TURGOT, an Anglo-Saxon prelate and historian, flourished about the period of the Conquest. He was delivered by the people of Lindsay as a hostage to William the Conqueror, but escaped from confinement to the court of Norway, where he was well received, and amassed a considerable fortune. He was wrecked on his voyage home, and was nearly drowned; and the great danger from which he was delivered induced him to become a monk. He eventually became prior of Durham, and archdeacon of the diocese. After discharging the important duties of these offices for twenty years, he was in 1107 consecrated bishop of St. Andrews and primate of Scotland, but subsequently returned to Durham, where he died two months after, in 1115. Turgot is now generally acknowledged to be the author of the "History of the Church of Durham from 635 to 1096," which was at one time ascribed to Simeon of Durham. He also wrote the lives of Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, and of his wife Margaret, not now extant.—F. TURGOT, Anne Robert James, Baron de L'Aulne, was born at Paris in 1727, and was the son of a lawyer. Influenced rather by a contemplative character than a pious disposition, Turgot adopted the ecclesiastical profession. But the range of his studies extended beyond those strictly theological. He was fascinated by the new ideas which had begun to prevail, and in 1751 abandoned theology for law. Having practised with success before the courts of law, Turgot was, in 1761, appointed intendant of Limoges. The situation of intendant under the old French monarchy, corresponded in some measure to that of prefect in modern France. Turgot was a wise, a humane, an energetic administrator, though perhaps too much influenced by theories. He had embraced, he zealously defended, and he did his best to apply the physiocratical system of Quesnay, founded on the fallacy that the soil is the only source of national wealth, from which the further fallacy was deduced, that the soil alone should be taxed. Before the Revolution taxation in France was of the most unjust, oppressive, and arbitrary kind, falling mainly on the poor drudges called peasants. It was the condition of the peasant that Turgot kept chiefly in view. He distributed the pressure of taxation more equally, so far as this was possible; he stood between the peasants and the exactions and tyranny of the nobles; he caused roads to be made, canals to be cut; he encouraged improvements in agriculture, and free trade in grain. But he had to contend with the bigotry of one class, the selfishness of a second, the privileges of a third, the ignorance of a fourth; and the complicated nature of French institutions was almost a greater hindrance than their profound corruption. They likewise whom Turgot wished to benefit—the toiling multitudes—were often from their superstitious prejudices his keenest opponents. Turgot had the reputation of an able governor, of an enlightened philosopher, of a philanthropist singularly devoted and disinterested, when in May, 1774, Louis XV. ascended the throne. With the best intentions, Louis had limited faculties and a feeble will. He could not resist the influence of those who immediately surrounded him. Madame Adelaide, the king's aunt, induced him to choose Count de Maurepas, an old man of seventy-three, as prime minister, or what was equivalent thereto. Till the death of Maurepas in 1781 he, and not Louis, was ruler of France; so that Maurepas has been called with some wit and fitness a mayor of the palace, such as had been the disgrace of the Merovingian dynasty more than a thousand years before. If gaiety and grace, and sparkling repartee, could have governed a vast kingdom whose financial and social condition was infinitely deplorable, Maurepas would have been an excellent minister; but frivolous in all things, except his jealousy of rivals—and here he could be earnest enough—Maurepas approached a tragedy with the air of a light comedian. Reforms, however, were urgent, retrenchments inevitable; mediæval monstrosities, which cumbered every department of the state, had to be swept away. Maurepas bowed to the necessity, and summoned a few eminent and patriotic men to co-operate with him. Two of these were Malesherbes and Turgot. The naval administration was first intrusted to Turgot, and after a while the finances. Supported by Malesherbes, Turgot proposed measures bold, sagacious, and complete. The king was as sincere and earnest as Turgot himself. To promote economy he gave the example of economy in his household, reducing his expenses with an unsparing hand, and abolishing useless offices. Turgot aimed at overthrowing the feudal system, which in some respects was in France as insulting to the monarch as it was injurious to the people. The public debt was continually increasing; the expenditure always exceeding the income, yet countless absurd sinecures devoured the substance of the land; and the clergy and the nobles claimed freedom from taxation. Two indispensable steps, therefore, were the abolition of undeserved pensions, and of the exemption from taxes of particular classes. Then the horrible burdens on the peasant had to be removed or alleviated, and the tyranny of guilds, the exclusiveness of corporations, had to be overthrown. The liberty of the subject, which the English esteem as the chief of their liberties, but which the French, even to this day, imperfectly appreciate, had to be placed beyond the cruel grasp, the mad whim, of potentate, of patrician, or of police. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction, often fanatical, had to be restrained. The censure was to cease, and, with a free press, there was to be free worship; and it was intended to re-enact the edict of Nantes, which Louis XIV. began the disasters of his reign by revoking. In the revision of a barbarous code, torture, either as a punishment or an instrument for forcing confession, was condemned. All judicial processes were to be simplified and amended. The mercantile marine was under a species of degrading subjection to the military marine; a decree went forth against this as an intolerable abuse. It was said of Turgot by his friend, Malesherbes, that he had the mind of Bacon and the heart of L'Hôpital; he could not, therefore, in his lofty scheme of national regeneration forget a thorough and sound national education. These are some of the admirable schemes which Turgot achieved or endeavoured to achieve. The people, the philosophers, the economists applauded; but France was not destined to be saved by peaceful means. Maurepas was annoyed by the popularity of Turgot and Malesherbes; he plotted against them; he thwarted their plans; he joined the cabal which was conspiring to drive them from power. Into that cabal heartily entered the queen, the aunts, and brothers of the king, the courtiers—all who had a privilege to defend, or a pension to keep—all who were obscurantists from stupidity, or obstructives from selfishness. A famine desolated France; to give the people bread Turgot procured the promulgation of an edict for unrestricted commerce in grain. This merciful edict, ill understood, gave rise to murmurs of dissatisfaction, and the king, weakly yielding to his evil counsellors, dismissed Turgot on the 12th of May, 1776. Irritated and disgusted, Malesherbes had resigned a few days before. Till his death, on the 12th of March, 1781, Turgot lived in retirement, consecrating his leisure to literary and scientific labours of the most various kind. His collected works were published not long after his death, and new and augmented editions have more recently appeared.—W. M—l. TURNBULL, William, Bishop of Glasgow, and founder of the university of that city, was descended from the Turnbulls of Minto in Roxburghshire, and was born in the early part of the fifteenth century. Having taken holy orders he was appointed prebendary of Balenrick in 1440, and was nominated secretary and keeper of the privy seal of Scotland in 1445. He was shortly after created doctor of laws, and made archdeacon of St. Andrews. In 1448 he was consecrated bishop of Glasgow, and two years later induced Pope Nicholas V. to issue a bull establishing a university in that city "for theology, the canon and the civil law, the arts, and every other lawful faculty." The bishop and his successors in the see were appointed chancellors of the new university, and in the following year a body of statutes was prepared by the bishop, and his chapter, for its government.